HISTORY
The Great Wall started as earth works thrown up for protection by different States. The individual sections weren’t connected until the Qin dynasty (221-206 B.C.). Qin Shihuangdi, First Emperor of Qin began conscripting peasants, enemies, and anyone else who wasn’t tied to the land to go to work on the wall. He garrisoned armies at the Wall to stand guard over the workers as well as to defend the northern boundaries. The tradition lasted for centuries. Each dynasty added to the height, breadth, length, and elaborated the design mostly through forced labor.

It was during the Ming dynasty (1368-1644) that the Wall took on its present form. The brick and granite work was enlarged and sophisticated designs were added. The watch towers were redesigned and modern canon were mounted in strategic areas. The Portuguese had found a ready market for guns and canon in China, one of the few items of trade that China didn’t already have in abundance. The Ming Emperors, having overthrown the Hun dominance and expelled their Mongol rulers of the North devoted large portions of available material and manpower to making sure that they didn’t return.

Throughout the centuries, armies were garrisoned along the length of the Wall to provide early warning of invasion and a first line of defense. Great piles of straw and dung used to build signal fires have been found during excavations. There must have been small garrison towns spotted along the length. There weren’t many farms or trade towns to provide ease, relaxation and food. The supply trails were over mountains along narrow paths. To bring supplies to the top, ropes were slung over posts set in the Chinese side of the wall and baskets were hauled up hand over hand. Supplies must have always been short and chancy, particularly in the winter.

The Wall served well. Only when a dynasty had weakened from within were invaders from the north able to advance and conquer. Both the Mongols (Yuan Dynasty, 1271-1368) and the Manchurians (Qing Dynasty,1644-1911) were able take power, not because of weakness in the Wall but because of weakness in the government and the poverty of the people. They took advantage of rebellion from within and stepped into the void of power without extended wars.

Over the past few centuries, the Great Wall has served as a source of building materials for local farms and villages. Aerial photos show that in sections, only the top battlements show — the center of the wall has filled with sand and silt. The same brutal isolated conditions which made the Great Wall a triumph of engineering and determined planning make restoration problematic and slow.

Location:
Alexandria, Egypt.

History:
Alexandria, Egypt, represented a melding of cultures in the late first century A.D. Traditions of Greece and Rome overlay the city, the cult of Christianity was gaining ground, and memories of ancient Egypt’s great kingdoms still lingered. It was a place where people seemed to have a talent for combining rather than destroying cultures.

Little of that “Paris of Antiquity” has survived above the ground. Below it, however, are haunting reminders of a culture that existed 1,900 years ago: the Catacombs of Kom el Shoqafa, “Mound of Shards.” Carved out of solid rock, three levels burrow into the ground near the sites of the ancient stadium, and the long- vanished temple to Serapis, a Greek and Egyptian god. Many such catacombs once filigreed Alexandria’s underground, but earthquakes and construction projects destroyed or obscured them. Only in 1900 was Kom el Shoqafa rediscovered after centuries – by a donkey that fell through a hole in the ground and into its access well. The animal, it soon became clear, had made an extraordinary archeological find.

Description:
An ancient circular staircase leads down into the catacombs. In the late second century, when Kom el Shaqafa was an active burial site, bodies were lowered by rope down the well formed by the spiraling stairs. The staircase ends at a landing vestibule, where two benches are carved into wall niches overarched by the cockleshell motif often found in classical designs.

A rotunda pierced by a six-pillared central shaft opens off the vestibule. To the left lies the triclinium, the funeral banquet hall where friends and family gathered on stone couches covered with cushions. Here they reclined while ceremonially feasting in memory of the deceased. Scholars believe that the catacombs at first may have served one family, but they were expanded into a mass burial site, probably administered by a corporation with dues-paying members. This theory could explain why so many chambers were hewn from the rock.

A staircase from the rotunda descends to the second level, an area eerily alive with sculpture. In the vestibule, two pillars are topped by the papyrus, lotus, and acanthus leaves of ancient Egypt, their frieze adorned by two falcons flanking a winged sun. Carved into wall niches are figures of a man, and a woman, perhaps the tomb’s original occupants. The man’s body assumes the stiff hieratic pose found in ancient Egyptian sculpture, but his head is in the lifelike manner of the classic Hellenes; the woman’s stance is also rigid, but she sports a Roman hairstyle.

Three gigantic sarcophagi with lids that do not lift rest along the sides of the chamber. Scholars assume that bodies would have been inserted into them from behind, using a passageway that runs around the outside of the funeral chamber. Further circling this central tomb chamber is a hallway with 91 wall niches, each one providing burial space for three mummies.

Returning to the first level, visitors can reach a separate set of tombs through a breach in the rotunda wall, unintended by the original builders. It leads to what has been called the Hall of Caracalla, where bones of horses and humans were found. The hall’s name comes from an episode in A.D. 215, when Emperor Caracalla ordered Alexandrian youths to review, then massacred them.

All over the empire, Romans enjoyed going to the theater to see concerts and plays, and to the stadium to watch chariot races and the amphitheater to watch bloody sports. Going to the amphitheater (Colosseum) was probably the most popular. Gladiatorial combats, fights with beasts and other fights were held in the Colosseum. The Colosseum was big enough to hold the whole population of a town–as many as 50,000 people would sometimes spend the whole day there watching sports. The games were really bloody and for four centuries, men died as an entertainment for the crowd. Gladiators went to training schools; most of them were slaves and criminals. At first there were fights to the death between wild animals: bear against buffalo, buffalo against elephant, and elephant against rhinoceros. Sometimes there would even be fights between men and tame beasts. These fights were called venationes.

The Amphitheater is built of travertine outside, and of tufa and brick in the interior. It had Greek columns decorating the outside, but these did not support the architecture. The Colosseum had a circumference of 527m and it was 50m high. There were 80 entrances, all numbered except for the four main entrances which were wider than the others and were reserved for the Emperor. It was designed so that the crowd could get out in five minutes. The interior was divided into three parts: the arena, the podium, and the cavea. Now more than two-thirds of the original building has been removed and the rows of the seats in the cavea are missing. It is very similar to other amphitheaters except this one is much bigger.

While we can’t say with any degree of certainty what it was for, we can say that it wasn’t constructed for any casual purpose. Only something very important to the ancients would have been worth the effort and investment that it took to construct Stonehenge.

The stones we see today represent Stonehenge in ruin. Many of the original stones have fallen or been removed by previous generations for home construction or road repair. There has been serious damage to some of the smaller bluestones resulting from close visitor contact (prohibited since 1978) and the prehistoric carvings on the larger sarsen stones show signs of significant wear.

Construction of the Henge In its day, the construction of Stonehenge was an impressive engineering feat, requiring commitment, time and vast amounts of manual labor. In its first phase, Stonehenge was a large earthwork; a bank and ditch arrangement called a henge, constructed approximately 5,000 years ago. It is believed that the ditch was dug with tools made from the antlers of red deer and, possibly, wood. The underlying chalk was loosened with picks and shoveled with the shoulderblades of cattle. It was then loaded into baskets and carried away. Modern experiments have shown that these tools were more than equal to the great task of earth digging and moving.

The Bluestones About 2,000 BC, the first stone circle (which is now the inner circle), comprised of small bluestones, was set up, but abandoned before completion. The stones used in that first circle are believed to be from the Prescelly Mountains, located roughly 240 miles away, at the southwestern tip of Wales. The bluestones weigh up to 4 tons each and about 80 stones were used, in all. Given the distance they had to travel, this presented quite a transportation problem.

Modern theories speculate that the stones were dragged by roller and sledge from the inland mountains to the headwaters of Milford Haven. There they were loaded onto rafts, barges or boats and sailed along the south coast of Wales, then up the Rivers Avon and Frome to a point near present-day Frome in Somerset. From this point, so the theory goes, the stones were hauled overland, again, to a place near Warminster in Wiltshire, approximately 6 miles away. From there, it’s back into the pool for a slow float down the River Wylye to Salisbury, then up the Salisbury Avon to West Amesbury, leaving only a short 2 mile drag from West Amesbury to the Stonehenge site.

Construction of the Outer Ring The giant sarsen stones (which form the outer circle), weigh as much as 50 tons each. To transport them from the Marlborough Downs, roughly 20 miles to the north, is a problem of even greater magnitude than that of moving the bluestones. Most of the way, the going is relatively easy, but at the steepest part of the route, at Redhorn Hill, modern work studies estimate that at least 600 men would have been needed just to get each stone past this obstacle.

Once on site, a sarsen stone was prepared to accommodate stone lintels along its top surface. It was then dragged until the end was over the opening of the hole. Great levers were inserted under the stone and it was raised until gravity made it slide into the hole. At this point, the stone stood on about a 30° angle from the ground. Ropes were attached to the top and teams of men pulled from the other side to raise it into the full upright position. It was secured by filling the hole at its base with small, round packing stones. At this point, the lintels were lowered into place and secured vertically by mortice and tenon joints and horizontally by tongue and groove joints. Stonehenge was probably finally completed around 1500 BC.

Who Built Stonehenge? The question of who built Stonehenge is largely unanswered, even today. The monument’s construction has been attributed to many ancient peoples throughout the years, but the most captivating and enduring attribution has been to the Druids. This erroneous connection was first made around 3 centuries ago by the antiquary, John Aubrey. Julius Caesar and other Roman writers told of a Celtic priesthood who flourished around the time of their first conquest (55 BC). By this time, though, the stones had been standing for 2,000 years, and were, perhaps, already in a ruined condition. Besides, the Druids worshipped in forest temples and had no need for stone structures.

The best guess seems to be that the Stonehenge site was begun by the people of the late Neolithic period (around 3000 BC) and carried forward by people from a new economy which was arising at this time. These “new” people, called Beaker Folk because of their use of pottery drinking vessels, began to use metal implements and to live in a more communal fashion than their ancestors. Some think that they may have been immigrants from the continent, but that contention is not supported by archaeological evidence. It is likely that they were indigenous people doing the same old things in new ways.

As Legend Has It The legend of King Arthur provides another story of the construction of Stonehenge. It is told by the twelfth century writer, Geoffrey of Monmouth, in his History of the Kings of Britain that Merlin brought the stones to the Salisbury Plain from Ireland. Sometime in the fifth century, there had been a massacre of 300 British noblemen by the treacherous Saxon leader, Hengest. Geoffrey tells us that the high king, Aurelius Ambrosius, wanted to create a fitting memorial to the slain men. Merlin suggested an expedition to Ireland for the purpose of transplanting the Giant’s Ring stone circle to Britain. According to Geoffrey of Monmouth, the stones of the Giant’s Ring were originally brought from Africa to Ireland by giants (who else but giants could handle the job?). The stones were located on “Mount Killaraus” and were used as a site for performing rituals and for healing. Led by King Uther and Merlin, the expedition arrived at the spot in Ireland. The Britons, none of whom were giants, apparently, were unsuccessful in their attempts to move the great stones. At this point, Merlin realized that only his magic arts would turn the trick. So, they were dismantled and shipped back to Britain where they were set up (see illus. at right) as they had been before, in a great circle, around the mass grave of the murdered noblemen. The story goes on to tell that Aurelius, Uther and Arthur’s successor, Constantine were also buried there in their time*.

Present Day Stonehenge Situated in a vast plain, surrounded by hundreds of round barrows, or burial mounds, the Stonehenge site is truly impressive, and all the more so, the closer you approach. It is a place where much human effort was expended for a purpose we can only guess at. Some people see it as a place steeped in magic and mystery, some as a place where their imaginations of the past can be fired and others hold it to be a sacred place. But whatever viewpoint is brought to it and whatever its original purpose was, it should be treated as the ancients treated it, as a place of honor .

The modern age has not been altogether kind to Stonehenge, despite the lip service it pays to the preservation of heritage sites. There is a major highway running no more than 100 yards away from the stones, and a commercial circus has sprung up around it, complete with parking lots, gift shops and ice cream stands. The organization, English Heritage, is committed to righting these wrongs, and in the coming years, we may get to see Stonehenge in the setting for which it was originally created. Despite all its dilapidation and the encroachment of the modern world, Stonehenge, today, is an awe-inspiring sight, and no travel itinerary around Britain should omit it.

Bütün dünyaca özellikle gövercinleri ile bilinmektedir. Ünlü cafelere ve lüks mağazalara ev sahipliği yapan üzeri kapalı galerilerle çevrili büyük bir mermer salon şeklindedir. Meydan, Büyük Kanal’a harikulade güzellikteki Piazzetta’dan açılmaktadır.

Üzerinde San Marco’nun Aslanı ve San Teodoro’nun heykelleri bulunan granit sütunlar, Constantinople (İstanbul)’dan getirilmiştir.

San Marco (St. Mark) Bazilikası:

Cumhuriyetin devlet kilisesi olan Bazilika, oniki havariden birisi olan San Marco’nun kemiklerini muhafaza etmek amacı ile 1063 ve 1073 yılları arasında, Avrupa ve Bizans karışımı bir tarzda inşa edilmiştir.

Rönasans doneminde ve 17. yüzyılda bazı değişiklikler yapılmış olan Bazilikanın süslemeleri olağanüstü dercede bol ve harikuladedir.

Yunan haçı tarzında inşa edilen San Marco Bazilikası’nın, soğan şeklindeki kubbesi, haçın kolları üzerine inşa edilen farklı yükseklikteki küçük kubbeler tarafından desteklenmektedir. Zengin süslemeleri bazilikaya ‘altın kilise’ ünvanını kazandırmıştır.

Yurt dışına yapılan bir seferden dönüldüğü zaman, elde edilen hazineler San Marco’da sanat eserine dönüştürülmüş, bu nedenle duvarlar, mermer ve değerli heykeller ile kalın bir tabaka ile kaplanmıştır. Ön cephe, rengarenk mermer ve heykellerle donatılmış beş adet büyük giriş kapısı ile delinmiştir.

Orta giriş kapısının üzerine, Constantinople (İstanbul)’dan getirilen meşhur dört adet bronz at heykeli yerleştirilmiştir. 1797 yılında Napolyon tarafından Paris’e götürülen dört bronz at heykeli, Fransız İmparatorluğunun sona ermesiyle yeniden Venedik’e geri getirilir. Bazilikanın içerisinin göz kamaştıran süslemeleri, ender bulunan mermerler, porfir ve Bizans ve Rönesans etkisinde altın kaplı fon özerine yapılmış mozaiklerden oluşmaktadır. 12. Yüzyıl taş döşemeleri oldukça süslüdür.

Doge (Düka) Sarayı:

Venedik’in bir güç ve şöhret sembolü olan saray, aynı zamanda hem Düka’nın ikamet yeri, hem de hükümetin bulunduğu yerdi. Beyaz ve pembe mermerin oluşturduğu sevimli geometrik şekillerin düzeni ön cepheye büyüleyici bir ifade kazardırmaktadır.

Avlu, heykellerle zenginleştirilerek süslenmiş Rönesans stilinin mukemmel bir örneğidir. Ön cephe, değişken ritmik cumbaları ile Venedik tarzı kemerler, sıva ve duvar süslemeleri ile dikkat çekicidir.

Heyet Odası, elçilerin kabul edilme odası olarak kullanılmaktaydı.

Tavan, Veronese ve öğrencileri tarafından yapılan onbir adet resim ile süslenmiştir.

Düka tahtının üzerinde, Veronese tarafından yapılmış olan ve Türklere karşı Lepanto’da elde edilen zafer anısına İsa’ya teşekkürlerini sunan hıristiyan deniz komutanı Sebastian Venier’in resmi bulunmaktadır. Duvarlardaki  Venedik Dükalarının portreleri Tintoretto tarafından yapılmıştır.

Senatörler Meclisi salonunun tavanı, Tintoretto tarafından yapılan olağanüstü güzellikteki Venedik’in Kutsalaştırılması ve İsa’nın haçdan indiriliş sahnesi ile süslenmiştir. 52x23m ölçülerinde olan toplantı salonu, sarayın en güzel odasıdır. Duvarlar, Venedik tarihini anlatan resimlerle döşenmiştir; Büyük Meclis salonunda bulunan Tintoretto’nun Paradiso (Cennet)’i, dünyanın en büyük resimlerinden bir tanesidir. Sarayı ile 17. Yüzyıl hapishanesine bağlayan Ponte dei Sospiri (İç Çekme Köprüsü), 1600 yılında üzeri kapalı bir galeri şeklinde inşa edilmiştir.

Aşıkların iç çekmeleri olmayan bu iç çekmeler, mahkumların, köprünün ince kafesli penceresinden belki de hayatları boyunca son kez ve bir an için görebildikleri bir ışığın iç çekmeleridir.

Campanile (Çan Kulesi):

99m. yüksekliğindeki çan kulesinin sadeliği, bazilikanın şaşalı süslemerine büyük bir contrast yaratmaktadır. Tepesine çıkıldığında Venedik’in harikulade manzarası ile karşılaşılır.

10. Yüzyılda inşa edilen campanile, 1902 yılında yıkılmış ve yeniden inşa edilmiştir.

Saat Kulesi 15. Yüzyıla tarihlenmektedir. Kadran ayıları burç sembollerini tasvir etmektedir. Saat kulesinin yukarısında bulunan ve iki adet büyük bronz insan olan meşhur ‘Mori’ler, 500 yıldır saati çalmaktadırlar.

Canale Grande (Büyük Kanal):

15. yüzyılda Fransız yazar Philippe de Commine tarafından ‘dünyanın en güzel caddesi’ olarak adlandırılan Büyük Kanal, Venedik’in en güzel malikanelerine sahiptir.

Yaklaşık 2 km. uzunluğunda olan kanalda, ‘Patrici”lerin yaşamış olduğu 200 adet 12. – 18. yüzyıl mermer saraylar yan yana sıralanmıştır.

Sarayların en meşhurları;

- Palazzo Corner geç Rönesans dönemi, Cà Grande’de bulunmaktadır

- Palazzo Corner -Spinelli, Rönesans dönemi

- Palazzo Grimani, geç Rönesans dönemi

- Cà d’Oro, “altın malikane”. Venedik’in en güzelidir, geç Gotik dönemi (1440).

- Palazzo Vendramin-Calergi, (Rönesans dönemi), 1883 yılında Wagner burada ölmüştür.

- Palazzo Dario, Gotik dönemi

- Palazzo Rezzonico, heybetli ve çok iyi dengelenmiş geç Rönesans dönemi. Bir 18. yüzyıl müzesine ev sahipliği yapmaktadır.

- Palazzo Foscari, 15. yüzyıl Gotik dönemi, tuğla. Doge Foscari’nin ikamet ettiği yerdi. .

- Palazzo Pesaro, bir barok şahaseri (1710). Bugün, güzel sanatlar galerisi ve doğu sanatı mizesi olarak kullanılmaktadır.

- Ponte di Rialto, zarif Rialto Köprüsü, 1588 – 1592 yılları arasında, bir veya daha fazla kürekleri olan harp gemilerinin altından geçebileceği yükseklikte inşa edilmiştir. Büyük Kanalın eşsiz manzarasına sahip, yan yana sıralı sayısız mağazaların bulunduğu ticaret semtinin merkezinde bulunmaktadır.

Güzel Sanatlar Akademisi

Akademisine bugün, St. Mary of Charity kilisesi ve okulu ev sahipliği yapmaktadır. Venedik resminin sergilendiği yer olan güzel sanatlar akademisinde, Giovanni Bellini, Carpaccio, Mantegna, Giorgione, Titian, Veronese, Tiepolo, Canaletto, Longhi ve Guardi gibi meşhur sanatçıların şahaserleri sergilenmektedir.

VENEDİK’İN YAKIN ÇEVRESİ

Lido

Lido, Adriyatik kıyısında bulunan büyüleyici tatil yerlerinden birisidir. İtalya’da kumar oynanılmasına izin verilen bir kaç yerden birisi olan Casino, modern çizgilerde hizmete vermektedir. Bir başka guzel modern yapı, Ağustos ve Eylül aylarında Uluslararası Film Festivaline ev sahiliği yapan saraydır.

Murano

Ana caddesinde bir kanal ve kanalın iki yakasında yan yana sıralanmış Rönesans evlerinin bulunduğu Lagona’daki küçük şirin bir köy adası olan Murano, 1300 yılından beri önemli bir cam-üretim merkezi konumundadır.

Cam İşçiliği Müzesi, geçmiş ve modern zamanların süslemeli, işlenmiş cam eşyalardan oluşan eşsiz kolleksiyonuna ev sahipliği yapmaktadır.

San Michele

Stravinsky gibi bir çok sanatçının mezarının bulunduğu Venedik’in mezarlık yeridir. Ayrıca, Rönesans dönemine ait hoş bir kilse bulunmaktadır.

Torcello

Bu ada köyü, bir zamanlar piskoposun ikamet ettiği önemli bir kasabaydı; 9. Yüzyılda gerilemeye başlamıştır. Görülecek en önemli yerler: piazza, 11. yüzyılda Romanesk tarzında ve sekizgen planda inşa edilen Santa Fosca Kilisesi, 11. yüzyıl güzel mozaik döşemelerin ve Korint tarzı yunan mermer sutunların üzerine yerleştirilen harikulade kemerlerin bulunduğu 9.-11. yüzyıl Katedrali’dir.

Burano

Danteli ve farklı renklere boyanmış evleri ile meşhur rengarenk balıkçı köy adası. Dantel ören kadınlar, sokaklara bakan evlerinin önünde oturarak bugün bile çalışmaktadırlar.

Why? Despite being over-run with tourists for centuries, Florence remains one of the world’s most beautiful cities which is why people continue to flock to holiday in Florence, an artistic, architectural and a cultural gem. In a relatively small area Florence contains a wealth of Rennaissance art treasures among streets that were once walked by their great creators like Michelangelo, Boticelli and Leonardo da Vinci.

When? High season for a holiday in Florence is high summer, when the sun bakes down from the blue Tuscan skies. Crowds make this season unpleasant for serious art-lovers however, and for a relatively quieter view it is best to travel here in spring or autumn, or even during the mild winter although there are many rainy days during this period.

Who for? No self-respecting European tourist can miss out on a holiday in Florence, which ranks as one of the ‘must see’ Italian destinations. Serious art lovers, who are out to do more than just tick the destination boxes, also rank a holiday in Florence at the top of their itineraries.

More Info: Although it is difficult to itemise everything there is to see in this beautiful city, our comprehensive Florence travel guide lists the major galleries and attractions, with details of opening times, admission prices and other useful information to help you plan your time during your Florence holiday.

The principal Tuscan city of Florence (Firenze) nestles below the wooded foothills of the Apennines, along the banks of the Arno River. The works of Botticelli, Michelangelo, Bruneschelli, Leonardo da Vinci, Boccaccio, Alberti, Masaccio, Donatello, Vasari and Fra Angelico imbue the city with the magnificence of their contribution to art and life. The city itself is muse to some and home to many stylish citizens who enhance the cobbled streets and fashionable piazzas with their inimitable Italian flair.

The heart of the city, where everyone from tourist to tout seems to congregate, is the Piazza de Duomo and the Piazza della Signoria. The statues dominating the Piazza della Signoria commemorate major historical events of the city’s life and the magnificent Palazzo Vecchio still performs its original role as Florence’s town hall. The adjacent Uffizi is the oldest gallery in the world with a collection of the greatest works of the Renaissance commissioned largely by the Medici family. The man who founded the great long-ruling Medici dynasty was Cosimo il Vecchio. His legacy is imprinted in the city’s northern area marked by the churches of San Lorenzo, San Marco and the Palazzo Medici Riccardi.

The Western stretches of the city are formed by Florence’s railway station at one end and the Ponte Vecchio at the other. The quaint Ponte Vecchio bridge was built in 1345 and was one of the few areas to emerge unscathed from the wartime bombs. Little workshops that used to belong to butchers, tanners and blacksmiths, peer onto the river from their timber supports. Santa Maria Novella also rises from the city’s western boundaries in true gothic splendour preserving some of the most important works of art in Florence.

The Oltrarno (meaning ‘over the Arno’) area became the place from which the Medici ruled from the Palazzo Pitti. The magnificent Boboli Gardens were designed and laid out around it. The area surrounding Via Maggio and Piazza di Santo Spirito boasts a collection of other palazzi built during the late 16th and 17th centuries.

Completely landlocked by Italy and located in the Apennine Mountains, it’s not surprising most people don’t know where the Most Serene Republic of San Marino is. The third smallest state in Europe, after the Vatican City and Monaco, San Marino is the world’s oldest republic, having been founded in 301 by a Christian stonemason fleeing religious persecution.

San Marino boasts a Mediterranean climate with mild winters and warm, sunny summers, providing the perfect environment to explore all this magical country has to offer. With three distinct towers overlooking the country from the three peaks of Monte Titano in the capital, San Marino’s history and culture is evident in its sights and simply walking around the city’s narrow streets will award visitors with some unique discoveries. The San Marino Historical Centre and Mount Titano was named a UNESCO World heritage Site and is worth a visit.

San Marino is a safe country with very little crime, but visitors should, as in any country, be aware of petty theft and pickpockets, and although there are no major health risks associated with travelling to San Marino, travellers should have comprehensive medical insurance.

Sample some of the country’s Limoncello and wines, or relax with a cup of coffee and a slice of La Torta Di Tre Monti (Cake of the Three Mountains/Towers) and watch the world go by in this beautiful, verdant mountain country.

Bordeaux traces its origins to Roman times, when a settlement was founded on the Rive Gauche (left bank) of the River Garonne. The site chosen was on a bend of the river, which formed a crescent-shaped harbour, known as Port de la Lune.

The city grew rich from a surge in international commerce in the 18th century. Inspired by their new-found wealth, the city’s burghers decided to redesign their city. Its winding medieval streets were cleared to make way for grand squares and elegant tree-lined avenues, lined with monumental buildings.

Bordeaux is famous for wine, not surprising as it sits at the heart of one of the world’s
best wine regions, but the wine trade was not enough to prevent a slump in the 19th century, during which much of the city centre deteriorated.

Happily, things have improved dramatically and, after years of neglect and stagnation, Bordeaux is coming back to life. The 18th-century centre has been restored to its former glory, the quaysides have been landscaped, colonial-era warehouses are filled with trendy bars and restaurants, and new parks allow the city to breathe again.

A new network of trams makes the city easily accessible and has had a major effect on the volume of traffic. But Bordeaux’s spirit, as ever, is that of a city that knows about joie de vivre and pleasures: strolling along the Garonne or in the pedestrian streets, sitting on a café terrace and enjoying the mild year-round climate, admiring magnificent architecture and art collections, and sampling some of the finest wines together with the excellent local cuisine.

Lively, lascivious Amsterdam has a unique atmosphere that belies the caricature of the dour Dutch.

Radiating out from the Dam Square, the historic centre of the city is ringed by quaint canals and cobbled streets, thronged with bicycles, tourists, houseboats, students, and street performers. The city wears two faces: on one it smiles and beckons hedonistic youth with its notorious Red Light District and liberal view of marijuana use, while on the other it offers some of Europe’s finest museums and art galleries.

For the tourist the joy of Amsterdam is its compactness. The old part of town is a pleasure to explore on foot, strolling across ancient bridges and down narrow lanes past gabled houses, dropping in to browse in inviting souvenir boutiques crammed with blue and white Delft china and wooden clogs. Pavement cafes and cosy bars offer rest and refreshment. An alternative is to take a circular canal-boat cruise and see the city from the water, peering in on the lives of the locals who live on houseboats lining the waterways.

At night even the most conservative visitor is drawn by the lively atmosphere of the infamous Red Light District, known as De Wallen, which is bounded by the Oudezijds Voorburgwal and Oudeziujds Achterburgwal canals near the Dam Square. Here prostitutes display their charms in brightly lit shop windows and touts encourage passers-by to view raunchy floorshows. The best nightclubs, bars, and the theatres and cinemas are mainly to be found in the bustling Leidesplein and Rembrandtplein.

Why? A holiday in Amsterdam must rate near the top of the list for any grand European tour. The city is full of old world charm with its quirky features, from the houseboats on the canals to the distinctive architecture of its townhouses. Travel to Amsterdam for lively nightlife, awesome art galleries, shopping for souvenirs, and to liberally sample the indigenous Heineken beer.

When? Spring (April/May) is the best time to holiday in Amsterdam: the weather may be unsettled but this is when Holland’s great flower shows are in full bloom providing a bonus for tourists. The Queen’s Birthday in April is also a major event when Amsterdam parties in the streets.

Who for? An Amsterdam holiday will enchant anyone of any age. The compact city centre can be explored on foot even by the less energetic, and there are attractions aplenty to entertain young and old.

More info: Our Amsterdam travel guide is an invaluable resource for anyone planning to travel to Amsterdam. The Amsterdam travel guide features information about public transport, the location of major attractions, restaurant suggestions and a host of other useful facts and figures.

The waterside city of Copenhagen is packed with old-world fairytale charm alongside some of the world’s most avante garde architecture. It is a vibrant, modern city with a long and fascinating history, having been the capital of Denmark for close on 600 years and home to the oldest resident monarchy in the world.

The biggest city in Scandinavia, Copenhagen occupies a pleasant and strategic spot on the Baltic east coast of Denmark’s largest island, Zealand, its harbour overlooked by the world-famous statue of the ‘Little Mermaid’.

One of the first impressions that strike visitors to this busy, dynamic capital is the cleanliness and orderliness that prevails in its narrow medieval cobbled central city streets and along the picturesque canals in Christianshavn. Most of the myriad attractions for visitors are situated within about one square mile (3 sq km) of flat terrain in the centre, making it easy to explore on foot (or bicycle, which is the vehicle of choice for locals).

Five streets in the heart of the city have been merged to provide the world’s longest pedestrian mall, running between Rådhuspladsen and Kongens Nytorv, which are packed with historic gabled buildings, dynamic department stores, stunning shops, restaurants, pavement cafes, theatres, and world-class museums and galleries.

Despite the condensed city centre, Copenhagen is not short on green lungs: parks such as the ever-popular Tivoli Gardens abound in this city, which prides itself on its strict anti-pollution laws and lack of glass and chrome skyscrapers.

The family-friendly city that spawned Hans Christian Andersen is, indeed, a modern fairy-tale: one of Europe’s finest capitals that retains a provincial charm and sense of history along with its cutting-edge efficiency, offering its justifiably proud citizens an extremely high standard of living.

Why? Anyone fortunate enough to holiday in Copenhagen will testify to the fact that the lovely Danish capital is one of Europe’s most desirable destinations. Its attractions are many, and easily accessible on foot; its architecture reflects its centuries of history; its shops are upmarket and splendid; its restaurants are superb. To sum it up in a word, Copenhagen is simply wonderful!

When? A summer holiday in Copenhagen is ideal, especially for those intent on making the most of Tivoli Gardens, the city’s popular amusement park, and the pavement cafes on the pretty squares. A Copenhagen holiday is also magical in the run-up to Christmas, when the snow-covered city takes on a fairy-tale aspect and it is fun to shop for gifts in the Christmas markets.

Who for? A holiday in Copenhagen is a magical experience for children and anyone who is young at heart, with its wonderful Tivoli funfair and association with Hans Christian Andersen’s fairy-tales. Culture vultures travel to Copenhagen to enjoy its many theatres, arts events and music concerts.

More Info? Find out all the delights that await you on a Copenhagen holiday by consulting our Copenhagen travel guide, which lists details of the major events and attractions in the city, as well as providing basic information for planning travel to Copenhagen.